London
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Categories: Cities, Europe, United Kingdom, England, London

London
Canary Wharf is the centre of London's modern office towers
London shown within England
Coordinates: 51°30′28″N 00°07′41″W / 51.50778, -0.12806
Sovereign state	United Kingdom
Constituent country	England
Region	Greater London
Districts	City & 32 London boroughs
Settled by Romans	as Londinium ca. AD 50
Government
- Regional authority	Greater London Authority
- Regional assembly	London Assembly
- Mayor	Ken Livingstone
- HQ	City Hall
- UK Parliament  - London Assembly  - European Parliament	74 constituencies 14 constituencies London constituency
Area
- City	1.00 sq mi (2.6 km²)
- Greater London	609 sq mi (1,577.3 km²)
Elevation [5]	79 ft (24 m)
Population (2006)[1][2][3][4]
- City	7,512,400
- Density	12,331/sq mi (4,761/km²)
- Urban	8,278,251
- Metro	12 to 14 million
- Demonym	Londoner
- Ethnicity (2001 Census)	59.97% White British 11.36% White Other 12.09% South Asian 10.91% Black 3.15% Mixed Race 1.58% Other 1.12% Chinese
Time zone	GMT (UTC0)
- Summer (DST)	BST (UTC+1)
Website: http://www.london.gov.uk

London (pronounced /ˈlʌndən/) is the capital city of both the United Kingdom and the constituent country of England. The ancient City of London, to which the name originally belonged, still retains its mediaeval boundaries, but the name "London" has long applied more generally to the whole metropolis which has grown up around it.

An important settlement for around two millennia, London is today one of the world's leading business, financial and cultural centres,^[6] and its influence in politics, education, entertainment, media, fashion and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the major global cities.^[7]

London is the most populous city within city limits in the European Union, with an official population of 7.5 million (as of mid-2006)^[1] and has a metropolitan area population of between 12 and 14 million.^[3][4] Its diverse population draws from a wide range of peoples, cultures and religions, speaking over 300 different languages.^[8]

It is an international transport hub, with five international airports and a large port. It serves as the largest aviation hub in the world,^[9] and its main airport, the multi-terminal Heathrow, carries more international passengers than any other airport in the world.^[10]

London is a major tourist destination, numbering four world heritage sites and many world-famous historic landmarks among its attractions. London is also the home of famous national institutions dedicated to the arts, humanities and sciences, many of which provide free access to the public. There are several large, beautiful public parks. London's main geographical feature is the River Thames which runs through the city from the south-west to the east.

Contents 1 Definitions 2 Geography and climate 2.1 Topography and climate 2.2 Districts 2.3 Architecture 2.4 Environment 3 History 3.1 Early London 3.2 Norman and medieval London 3.3 Rise of modern London 4 Government 4.1 Local government 4.2 National government 5 Economy 6 Demographics 6.1 Ethnic groups 6.2 Religion 7 Transport 8 Education 9 Society and culture 9.1 Leisure and entertainment 9.2 Literature and film 9.3 Music 9.4 Sport 10 Twinnings 11 See also 12 References 13 External links

Definitions

London can be defined in a number of different ways. The London region of England, also commonly known as Greater London, is the area administered by the Greater London Authority. The urban sprawl of the conurbation—or Greater London Urban Area—covers a roughly similar area, with a slightly larger population. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt.^[11] At London's core is the small, ancient City of London which is commonly known as "The City" or "Square Mile". Within London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have City status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are ceremonial counties.^[12] The current area of Greater London was historically part of the counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire.^[13]

Forty percent of Greater London is covered by the London postal area.^[14] The London telephone area code covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are omitted and some places just outside are included. The area within the orbital M25 motorway is sometimes used to define the "London area"^[15] and the Greater London boundary has been aligned to it in places.^[16] Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London. Informally, the city is split into North, South, East, West and often also Central London.

London's metropolitan area ('the metropolis') grew considerably during the Victorian era and again during the Interwar period. Expansion halted in the 1940s because of World War II and Green Belt legislation, and the area has been largely static since.^[17] The Metropolitan Police District, city-wide local government area and London transport area have varied over time, but currently broadly coincide with the Greater London boundary.^[18]

Unlike most capital cities, London's status as the capital of the UK has never been granted or confirmed officially—by statute or in written form.^[19] Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the UK's unwritten constitution. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation.^[20]

The Romans may have marked the centre of Londinium with the London Stone, still visible on Cannon Street.^[21] The coordinates of the nominal centre of London (traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross, near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall) are approximately 51°30′29″N, 00°07′29″W. Trafalgar Square has also become a central point for celebrations and protests.^[22]

City of London City of Westminster Kensington and Chelsea Hammersmith and Fulham Wandsworth Lambeth Southwark Tower Hamlets Hackney Islington Camden Brent Ealing Hounslow Richmond Kingston Merton

Sutton Croydon Bromley Lewisham Greenwich Bexley Havering Barking and Dagenham Redbridge Newham Waltham Forest Haringey Enfield Barnet Harrow Hillingdon

Geography and climate

Main articles: Geography of London, List of places in London, and Climate of London

Topography and climate

Climate chart for London
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
52   8 2	34   8 2	42   11 4	45   13 5	47   17 8	53   20 11	38   23 14	47   23 13	57   19 11	62   15 8	52   11 5	54   9 3
temperatures in °C • precipitation totals in mm source: Met Office[23]

Greater London covers an area of 609 square miles (1,579 km²), making it the 37th largest urban area in the world.^[24] Its primary geographical feature is the Thames, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills such as Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. These hills presented no significant obstacle to the growth of London from its origins as a port on the north side of the river, and therefore London is roughly circular.

The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their current width.^[25] Since the Victorian era It has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding.^[26] The threat has increased over time due to a slow but continuous rise in high water level by the slow 'tilting' of Britain (up in the north and down in the south) caused by post-glacial rebound.^[27] In 1974, a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat. While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2030, concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed.^[28]

London has a temperate marine climate, like much of the British Isles, with regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year—unlike the rest of the UK and even the nearby coast. London is in fact among the driest of Europe's capitals, with water resources per head of population equivalent to Israel.^[29] The warmest month is July, with an average temperature range at Greenwich of 13.6 °C to 22.8 °C (56.5 to 73.0 °F). Record high temperatures of up to 38.1 °C (101 °F) were recorded in different parts of London on 10 August 2003.^[30] The coolest month is January, averaging 2.4 °C to 7.9 °C (35.6 to 46.2 °F). Average annual precipitation is 583.6 mm (22.98 in), with February on average the driest month.^[31] Snow is relatively uncommon, particularly because heat from the urban area can make London up to 5 °C (9 °F) hotter than the surrounding areas in winter. However light snowfall is seen on some days most winters. London is in USDA Hardiness zone 9, and AHS Heat Zone 2.^[32]

Weather averages for London
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Average high °C (°F)	7.9 (46)	8.2 (47)	10.9 (52)	13.3 (56)	17.2 (63)	20.2 (68)	22.8 (73)	22.6 (73)	19.3 (67)	15.2 (59)	10.9 (52)	8.8 (48)	14.8 (59)
Average low °C (°F)	2.4 (36)	2.2 (36)	3.8 (39)	5.2 (41)	8.0 (46)	11.1 (52)	13.6 (56)	13.3 (56)	10.9 (52)	8.0 (46)	4.8 (41)	3.3 (38)	7.2 (45)
Precipitation mm (inch)	51.9 (2)	34.0 (1.3)	42.0 (1.7)	45.2 (1.8)	47.2 (1.9)	53.0 (2.1)	38.3 (1.5)	47.3 (1.9)	56.9 (2.2)	61.5 (2.4)	52.3 (2.1)	54.0 (2.1)	583.6 (23)
Source: Met Office[33] 14 August 2007

Districts

See also: Central London, Inner London, and Outer London

London's vast urban area is often described using a set of district names (e.g. Bloomsbury, Knightsbridge, Mayfair, Whitechapel, Fitzrovia). These are either informal designations, or reflect the names of superseded parishes and city wards. Such names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a neighbourhood with its own distinctive character, but often with no modern official boundaries.

One area of London which does have a strict definition is the City of London (usually just called The City). London is one of the world's three largest financial centres (alongside New York and Tokyo) with a dominant role in several international financial markets, including cross border bank lending, international bond issuance and trading, foreign-exchange trading, over-the-counter derivatives, fund management and foreign equities trading.^[34] It also has the world's largest insurance market, the leading exchange for dealing in non-precious metals, the largest spot gold and gold lending markets, the largest ship broking market, and more foreign banks and investment houses than any other centre.^[34] The City has its own governance and boundaries, giving it a status as the only completely autonomous local authority in London.^[35] London's new financial and commercial hub is the Docklands area to the east of the City, dominated by the Canary Wharf complex. Other businesses locate in the City of Westminster, the home of the UK's national government and the famous Westminster Abbey.

The West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, with locations such as Oxford Street, Leicester Square, Covent Garden and Piccadilly Circus acting as tourist magnets.^[36] The West London area is known for fashionable and expensive residential areas such as Notting Hill, Knightsbridge and Chelsea—where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds.^[37] The average price for all properties in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea is £894,000 with similar average outlay in most of Central London.^[38]

The eastern side of London contains the East End and East London. The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London.^[39] The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which is being developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics.^[39]

Architecture

See also: Architecture in London and List of tallest structures in London

The density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area, high residential densities in inner London and lower densities in the suburbs. In the dense areas, most of the concentration is achieved with medium-rise and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers such as the famous "Gherkin", Tower 42 and One Canada Square are usually found in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf.

In recent years, the development of tall buildings has been encouraged in the London Plan, which will lead to the erection of new skyscrapers over the next few years as London goes through a high-rise boom, particularly in the City of London and Canary Wharf.^[40] The 72-storey, 310 m "Shard London Bridge" by London Bridge station, the 288 m Bishopsgate Tower and around 30 other skyscrapers over 150 m are either proposed or approved and could transform the city's skyline.

Other notable modern buildings include City Hall in Southwark with its distinctive oval shape, the British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross, and the Great Court of the British Museum. What was formerly the Millennium Dome is now used as the cover of an entertainment district known as The O₂, next to the Thames, to the east of Canary Wharf. The disused (but soon to be rejuvenated) 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St Pancras and Paddington (at least internally).^[41] Another major local landmark is The London Ark by Ralph Erskine, in Hammersmith.

London is too large to be overwhelmingly characterised by any particular architectural style, having accumulated its buildings over a long period of time and drawing on an inexhaustible range of influences, although it is mainly brick built, most commonly a warm orange red, often with carvings and white plaster mouldings.^[42] Many areas of the city are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, except for a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the City. A majority of buildings in London date from the Edwardian or Victorian periods.^[42]

A great many monuments pay homage to people and events in the city. The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column is a nationally-recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, providing a focal point for the whole central area.

Environment

Main articles: Parks and open spaces in London and Royal Parks of London

Often called "The Green City," London has a number of open spaces.^[43] The largest of these in the central area are the Royal Parks of Hyde Park and its neighbours Kensington Gardens and Holland Park Gardens at the western edge of central London, and Regent's Park on the northern edge. This park is located near the tourist attractions of Baker Street, where the fictional Sherlock Holmes lived, and Madame Tussauds Wax Museum. Closer to central London are the smaller Royal Parks of Green Park and St. James's Park. Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open-air concerts.

A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the south-east, and Bushy Park and Richmond Park to the south-west. Primrose Hill to the north of Regent's Park is a popular spot to view the city skyline. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including the 791 acre (3.2 km²) Hampstead Heath of North London. This incorporates Kenwood House, the former stately home and a popular location in the summer months where classical music concerts are held by the lake, attracting thousands of people every weekend to enjoy the music, scenery and fireworks. In the extreme South East of Greater London, the London Boroughs of Bexley and Bromley are noted for their open spaces and extensive wooded areas.

History

Main articles: History of London and Londinium

Early London

Westminster Abbey is one of London's oldest and most important buildings

Although there is some evidence of scattered Brython settlement in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans in AD 43, following the Roman invasion of Britain. This settlement was called Londinium, commonly believed to be the origin of the present-day name, although a Celtic origin is also possible.

The first London lasted for just seventeen years. Around AD 61, the Iceni tribe of Celts led by Queen Boudica stormed London, burning it to the ground. The next, heavily-planned incarnation of the city prospered and superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman province of Britannia in AD 100. At its height in the 2nd century AD, Roman London had a population of around 60,000. However, by the 3rd century AD, the city started a slow decline due to trouble in the Roman Empire, and by the 5th century AD, it was largely abandoned.^[44]

By 600 AD, the Anglo-Saxons had created a new settlement (Lundenwic) about 1 km upstream from the old Roman city, around what is now Covent Garden.^[45] There was probably a harbour at the mouth of the River Fleet for fishing and trading, and this trading grew until disaster struck in 851 AD, when the city's defences were overcome by a massive Viking raid and it was razed to the ground.^[45] A Viking occupation twenty years later was short-lived, and Alfred the Great, the new King of England, established peace and moved the settlement within the defensive walls of the old Roman city (then called Lundenburgh). The original city became Ealdwic ("old city"), a name surviving to the present day as Aldwych.

Subsequently, under the control of various English kings, London once again prospered as an international trading centre and political arena. However, Viking raids began again in the late 10th century, and reached a head in 1013 when they besieged the city under Danish King Canute and forced English King Ethelred the Unready to flee.^[45] In a retaliatory attack, Ethelred's army achieved victory by pulling down London Bridge with the Danish garrison on top, and English control was re-established.

Canute took control of the English throne in 1017, controlling the city and country until 1042, when his death resulted in a reversion to Anglo-Saxon control under his pious step-son Edward the Confessor, who re-founded Westminster Abbey and the adjacent Palace of Westminster.^[45] By this time, London had become the largest and most prosperous city in England, although the official seat of government was still at Winchester.^[45]

Norman and medieval London

See also: Fortifications of London

The Great Fire of London destroyed many parts of the city in 1666

Following a victory at the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror, the then Duke of Normandy, was crowned King of England in the newly-finished Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William granted the citizens of London special privileges, while building a castle in the south-east corner of the city to keep them under control. This castle was expanded by later kings and is now known as the Tower of London, serving first as a royal residence and later as a prison.

In 1097, William II began the building of Westminster Hall, close by the abbey of the same name. The hall proved the basis of a new Palace of Westminster, the prime royal residence throughout the Middle Ages. Westminster became the seat of the royal court and government (persisting until the present day), while its distinct neighbour, the City of London, was a centre of trade and commerce and flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. Eventually, the adjacent cities grew together and formed the basis of modern central London, superseding Winchester as capital of England in the 12th century.

London grew in wealth and population during the Middle Ages. In 1100 its population was around 18,000, by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000.^[44] However disaster struck during the Black Death in the mid-14th century, when London lost nearly a third of its population.^[44] Apart from the invasion of London during the Peasants' Revolt in 1381, London remained relatively untouched by the various civil wars during the Middle Ages, such as the first and second Barons' Wars and the Wars of the Roses.

After the successful defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, political stability in England allowed London to grow further. In 1603, James VI of Scotland came to the throne of England, essentially uniting the two countries. His enactment of harsh anti-Catholic laws made him unpopular, and an assassination attempt was made on 5 November 1605—the famous Gunpowder Plot.^[45]

Plague caused extensive problems for London in the early 17th century, culminating in the Great Plague in 1665–1666. This was the last major outbreak in Europe, possibly thanks to the disastrous fire of 1666. The Great Fire of London broke out in the original City and quickly swept through London's wooden buildings, destroying large swathes of the city. Rebuilding took over ten years.^[45]

Rise of modern London

Following London's growth in the 18th century, it became the world's largest city from about 1831 to 1925.^[46] This growth was aided from 1836 by London's first railways, which put countryside towns within easy reach of the city. The rail network expanded very rapidly, and caused these places to grow while London itself expanded into surrounding fields, merging with neighbouring settlements such as Kensington. Rising traffic congestion on city centre roads led to the creation of the world's first metro system—the London Underground—in 1863, driving further expansion and urbanisation.^[47] Because of this rapid growth, London became one of the first cities in human history to reach a population of one million, and was the first ever to surpass five million.

London's local government system struggled to cope with the rapid growth, especially in providing the city with adequate infrastructure. Between 1855 and 1889, the Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion. It was then replaced by the County of London, overseen by the London County Council, London's first elected city-wide administration.

The Blitz and other bombing by the German Luftwaffe during World War II killed over 30,000 Londoners^[48] and flattened large tracts of housing and other buildings across London. The rebuilding during the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s was characterised by a wide range of architectural styles and has resulted in a lack of architectural unity that has become part of London's character. In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded to take into account the growth of the urban area outside the County of London's borders. The expanded area was called Greater London and was administered by the Greater London Council.

In the decades following World War II, large-scale immigration from Commonwealth countries and beyond transformed London into one of the most racially and culturally diverse cities in Europe. Integration of the new immigrants was not always smooth, with major race riots in Notting Hill and Brixton, but was certainly smoother than in other English regions and largely lacking in widespread support for far right organisations, unlike its European or American contemporaries.

An economic revival from the 1980s onwards re-established London's position as a pre-eminent international centre. However, as the seat of government and the most important city in the UK, it has been subjected to bouts of terrorism. Provisional Irish Republican Army bombers sought to pressure the government into negotiations over Northern Ireland, frequently disrupting city activities with bomb threats—some of which were carried out—until their 1997 cease-fire. More recently, a series of coordinated bomb attacks were carried out by Islamic extremist suicide bombers on the public transport network on 7 July 2005—just 24 hours after London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics.

Government

See also: List of heads of London government

Local government

The administration of London takes place in two tiers—a city-wide, strategic tier and a local tier. City-wide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities.^[45]

The GLA is responsible for strategic planning, policing, the fire service, most aspects of transport and economic development. It consists of two elected parts—the Mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, who scrutinize the Mayor's decisions and can accept or reject his budget proposals each year. The GLA is a recent organisation, having been set up in 2000 to replace the similar Greater London Council (GLC) which had been abolished in 1986.^[45] The headquarters of the GLA and the Mayor of London is at City Hall.

The Mayor of London is Ken Livingstone, who is in his second term of office. He was elected in 2000 as an independent candidate and again in 2004 as a Labour candidate. Ken Livingstone was also the leader of the GLC when it was abolished in 1986.

The 33 local authorities are the 32 London boroughs and the City of London.^[45] They are responsible for local services not overseen by the GLA, such as local planning, schools, social services, local roads and refuse collection. The London boroughs each have a council which is elected every four years by local residents. The City of London does not have a conventional local authority, but is governed by the historic City of London Corporation which is elected by both residents and businesses, and which has existed more or less unchanged since the Middle Ages. The head of the Corporation is the Lord Mayor of London, which is a different position from that of Mayor of London.

The City of London also has its own police force: The City of London Police, which is independent of the Metropolitan Police Service which covers the rest of Greater London.

Health services in London are managed by the national government through the National Health Service, which is controlled and administered in London by a single NHS Strategic Health Authority.^[49]

National government

London is the home of the Government of the United Kingdom which is located around the Houses of Parliament in Westminster. Many government departments are located close to Parliament, particularly along Whitehall, including the Prime Minister's residence at 10 Downing Street.

The British Parliament is often referred to as the "Mother of Parliaments" (although this sobriquet was first applied to England itself by John Bright^[50]) because it has been the model for most other parliamentary systems, and its Acts have created many other parliaments. Many nations with parliaments have to some degree emulated the British "three-tier" model. Most countries in Europe and the Commonwealth have similarly organised parliaments with a largely ceremonial head of state who formally opens and closes parliament, a large elected lower house and a smaller, upper house.

London is represented in the national Parliament by 74 Members of Parliament (MPs) who correspond to local parliamentary constituencies.^[51] For a list of London constituencies, see List of Parliamentary constituencies in Greater London. Of these 74 MPs, 44 are from the Labour Party, 21 are Conservatives, 8 are Liberal Democrats and one is from the RESPECT party.

Economy

Further information: Economy of the United Kingdom, Economy of London, Media in London and Tourism in London

London is a major centre for international business and commerce and is one of three "command centres" for the global economy (along with New York City and Tokyo).^[52] London is the world's second largest financial centre after New York and has the 6th largest city economy in the world, larger than Osaka but smaller than Paris.^[53] As Europe's second largest city economy, year-by-year London generates approximately 20% of the UK's GDP^[54] (or $446 billion in 2005); while the economy of the London metropolitan area (the largest in Europe)^[55] generates approximately 30% of UK's GDP (or an estimated $669 billion in 2005.)^[56]

London shifted to a mostly service-based economy earlier than other European cities, particularly following the Second World War. London's success is as a service industry and business centre.^[57]

This can be attributed to factors such as English being the lingua franca, its former position as the capital of the British Empire, close relationship with the U.S. and various countries in Asia.^[57] Other factors include English law being the most important and most used contract law in international business and the multi-cultural infrastructure.^[57] Government policies such as low taxes, particularly for foreigners (non-UK domiciled residents do not get taxed on their foreign earnings), a business friendly environment, good transport infrastructure, particularly its aviation industry; and a deregulated economy with little intervention by the government have all contributed to London's economy becoming more service based.^[57] Over 85 percent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in service industries. Another half a million employees resident in Greater London work in manufacturing and construction, almost equally divided between both.^[58] There has been a significant fall in the number of people working in manufacturing industries in London over the last three decades, largely as a result of competition from lower cost regions but also as a consequence of technology and process improvements.^[59] Even still, there are more than 15,000 manufacturing businesses in London such as clothing, printing, fabricated metal, furniture and wood/products and food and drink.^[59] There is also strong growth in th